Abstract:
Objects are naturally occurring items or artificially made artifacts that subjects – humans and animals – act with. They serve as tools in the widest sense: they are used to do something. As part of an activity they are the material expressions of cogitation, especially the ability to think outside the box. The making and use of objects is always tied to a goal that cannot be achieved directly, but only by means of a medium: the need for enhancement of individual faculties is perceived, and an object – not just any, but one that fits the challenge – is found or devised to answer the problem. Object or tool behavior is a particular aspect of behavior that is based on causal connections and – at least partially – considerations thereof.
Although the use of tools in the animal kingdom is widespread, it is by no means universal. Contemporary human behavior is characterized by the constant use of objects or tools. The solution of common problems and challenges, and, in extension, human life, without the presence and aid of utensils is inconceivable. Humanity is not characterized by physical and intellectual traits alone, but only becomes comprehensible through its unbreakable bond to inanimate objects, which through use become part of actions and thus of the human world. The connection between the consciously acting human subject and an object is established by means of cognitive processes, where the object, as a tool, becomes a temporally limited extension of the subject.
The volume “How to think tools? A comparison of cognitive aspects in tool behavior of animals and during human evolution” approaches the specific link between object use and human cognition from theoretical and comparative perspectives. The first two parts give a theoretical overview to concepts behind the fundamental notions of human and cognition and discuss the potential of primates as a model for basic cognitive capacities of humans. Then evidence of the course of evolution of human thought is discussed: as a phylogenetic problem with epistemological, anatomical and genetic perspectives; as a problem between phylogeny and ontogeny considering the organization of thought; as an ontogenetic problem; and as a historical problem.
The third part explores the means previously employed to comprehend the evolution of human thinking and the cognitive background to object behavior on the basis of archaeological artifacts. It starts with an excursion into the history of archaeological theory and then proceeds to discuss, by means of eight models, the potential and limitations of archaeological approaches to the study of the development of the human mind.
The fourth part consists of a detailed study of the progressive development of human thinking, and expands to incorporate problem-solution-distance as a neutral, species and period independent basis of analysis, which applies to animal as well as human tool behavior. Following its discussion and the definition of the concept tool, as used in this study, is a short review of previous comparative studies on animal and human tool behavior. Then the database, containing an almost complete survey of tool usage in animals, is presented as the basis of the comparative study on problem-solution-distance, and the method of coding tool behavior in cognigrams is introduced. Following a general survey of animal tool behavior, various cognigrams of animal behavior are instanced. Numerous archaeological examples, coded in a similar fashion, then help to understand the further development of problem-solution-distance as one aspect of human cognitive evolution.
The concluding discussion delves further into the question of which mechanisms drive and influence the development of tool behavior, the problem-solution-distance in particular, and the underlying planning capability. The synopsis of conclusions from this study offers a re-interpretation of the seemingly slow progress of tool development during the Old and Middle Palaeolithic and the “explosive” expansion of tool inventories at the start of the Late Palaeolithic, when modern humans appeared 40.000 years before present. Biological as well as cultural factors are responsible for the exponential increase of object behavior, which under close scrutiny can already be detected in the early phases of human cultural development and which continues to increase after the appearance of modern man.